Effects of Cold-Water and Cold-Air Exercise on Appetite, Energy Intake, and Food Preference

NCT07681011 | Completed

• 1 other identifier: P180097
• Study Type: interventional
• Target: 11
• Locations: 1 country
• Sites: 1

Brief Summary

This study investigated whether exercising in cold environments affects appetite, energy intake, and food preference compared with exercising in thermoneutral conditions. Eleven healthy males completed five laboratory trials as part of a crossover study: a control trial and four exercise trials performed in cold-water (16°C), thermoneutral water (35°C), cold-ambient air (6°C), and thermoneutral ambient air (26°C). Appetite responses were assessed throughout each trial, and participants were provided with an ad libitum meal after exercise to measure energy intake. Food preference was assessed using the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire. The study aimed to determine whether environmental temperature and exercise medium influence acute post-exercise eating behaviour.

Conditions

Healthy Adult Male; Energy Intake; Appetite

Keywords

Cold-ambient air exercise; Thermoregulation; Appetite; Food preference; Crossover study; Cold exposure; Energy Intake; Cold-Water Exercise; Healthy Adult Male

Outcome Measures

Primary Outcomes (3)

• Post-exercise ad libitum energy intake

  Energy intake consumed during an ad libitum homogeneous pasta meal provided after each 30-minute experimental/control condition. The mass of food consumed was determined by subtracting the mass of food remaining (including leftovers on the plate and cutlery). Absolute energy intake was calculated using the nutritional information provided by the food manufacturer.

  30 minutes after completion of the 30-minute experimental/control condition.

• Subjective appetite responses

  Subjective appetite responses including hunger, fullness, satisfaction, and prospective food consumption assessed using a 100-mm Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) ranging from 0 mm (not at all) to 100 mm (extremely). Higher scores indicate greater subjective appetite sensations.

  Before and after breakfast, before the 30-minute experimental/control condition, during the 30-minute experimental/control condition, and before and after the ad libitum meal.

• Food preference and food reward responses

  Food preference and reward responses assessed using the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire (LFPQ). Outcomes include explicit liking, explicit wanting, implicit wanting, and fat and sweet appeal bias scores. Higher scores indicate greater preference or reward response for the respective food category (fat or sweet).

  15 minutes after completion of each 30-minute experimental/control trial and 15-minutes before the ad libitum meal.

Secondary Outcomes (4)

• Core body temperature

  During the 30-minute experimental/control condition and during the 60-minute post-exposure recovery period.

• Energy expenditure

  During the 30-minute experimental/control condition.

• Skin temperature and mean body temperature responses

  5-minutes before and 5-minutes after the 30-minute experimental/control condition.

• Thermal sensation and shivering responses

  During the 30-minute experimental/control condition at 10-minute intervals.

Study Arms (5)

Control Condition

ACTIVE COMPARATOR

Resting control condition with no exercise performed. Participants completed the same standardised laboratory procedures and outcome assessments under resting conditions.

Other: Control Condition

Cold-Water Exercise

EXPERIMENTAL

Participants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in cold water at 16°C.

Other: Cold-Water Exercise

Thermoneutral Water Exercise

EXPERIMENTAL

Participants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in thermoneutral water at 35°C.

Other: Thermoneutral Water Exercise

Cold-Ambient Air Exercise

EXPERIMENTAL

Participants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in cold ambient air at 6°C.

Other: Cold-Ambient Air Exercise

Thermoneutral Ambient Air Exercise

EXPERIMENTAL

Participants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in thermoneutral ambient air at 26°C.

Other: Thermoneutral Ambient Air Exercise

Interventions

Control Condition OTHER

Resting control condition with no exercise exposure.

Control Condition

Cold-Water Exercise OTHER

Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 16°C water.

Cold-Water Exercise

Thermoneutral Water Exercise OTHER

Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 35°C water.

Thermoneutral Water Exercise

Cold-Ambient Air Exercise OTHER

Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 6°C ambient air.

Cold-Ambient Air Exercise

Thermoneutral Ambient Air Exercise OTHER

Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 26°C ambient air.

Thermoneutral Ambient Air Exercise

Eligibility Criteria

• Age: 18 Years - 65 Years
• Sex: male
• Healthy Volunteers: Yes
• Age Groups: Adult (18-64), Older Adult (65+)

You may qualify if:

• Healthy males aged 18-65 years
• Living in the UK
• Recreationally active and meeting current physical activity guidelines
• Body mass stable (\<2 kg change) during the 3 months prior to the study
• Able to complete moderate-intensity arm-leg rowing exercise
• Able to tolerate the cold-water familiarisation/tolerance test
• Low cognitive restraint score on the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire Revised
• item (TFEQ-R18)
• Able to consume the standardised breakfast and ad libitum pasta meal provided during the study
• Able to provide written informed consent
• Willing to complete study questionnaires and experimental assessments
• Willing to undergo core temperature measurement via self-inserted rectal thermistor and body composition assessment

You may not qualify if:

• Diagnosed cardiovascular, pulmonary, metabolic, or renal disease, or symptoms suggestive of these conditions
• Any contraindication to moderate-intensity exercise
• Conditions increasing risk during cold exposure, including history of cold-induced asthma, Raynaud's phenomenon, cold urticaria, or other non-freezing cold injuries
• Cold-habituated individuals (e.g., regular cold-water swimmers)
• Current medication known to alter body weight or metabolism
• Smoking, drug misuse, or alcohol abuse
• Current musculoskeletal injury or condition that could be worsened by exercise
• History of eating disorders or restrained eating behaviour
• Shift work or sleep deprivation affecting study participation
• Unable to fast before experimental sessions
• Unable to tolerate the cold-water familiarisation/tolerance procedure
• Unable to consume the foods provided as part of the standardised breakfast or ad libitum meal due to dietary restrictions or allergies
• Unable to commit to study requirements

Sponsors & Collaborators

• Coventry University: lead

Study Sites (1)

Centre for Physical Activity, Sport and Exercise Sciences, Research Laboratory, Coventry University

Coventry, CV1 5FB, United Kingdom

Location

Related Publications (2)

• Grigg MJ, Thake CD, Allgrove JE, King JA, Thackray AE, Stensel DJ, Owen A, Broom DR. Influence of water-based exercise on energy intake, appetite, and appetite-related hormones in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Appetite. 2023 Jan 1;180:106375. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2022.106375. Epub 2022 Nov 12.

  PMID: 36375602 BACKGROUND

• Grigg MJ, Thake CD, Allgrove JE, Broom DR. Effects of cold-water immersion on energy expenditure, ad-libitum energy intake and appetite in healthy adults. Physiol Behav. 2025 Jul 1;296:114914. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2025.114914. Epub 2025 Apr 10.

  PMID: 40221072 BACKGROUND

MeSH Terms

Conditions

Food Preferences

Condition Hierarchy (Ancestors)

Feeding Behavior; Behavior

Study Design

• Study Type: interventional
• Phase: not applicable
• Allocation: RANDOMIZED
• Masking: NONE
• Purpose: BASIC SCIENCE
• Intervention Model: CROSSOVER
• Sponsor Type: OTHER
• Responsible Party: PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR
• PI Title: PhD Researcher

Model Details: Participants completed five laboratory trials in a repeated-measures crossover design. All participants first completed a control condition, followed by four experimental exercise conditions completed in a randomised order: cold-water exercise (16°C), thermoneutral water exercise (35°C), cold-ambient air exercise (6°C), and thermoneutral ambient air exercise (26°C). Each participant completed all conditions, with trials separated by a minimum seven-day washout period.

Study Record Dates

• First Submitted: June 26, 2026
• First Posted: July 2, 2026
• Study Start: January 7, 2025
• Primary Completion: July 2, 2025
• Study Completion: July 2, 2025
• Last Updated: July 6, 2026

Record last verified: 2026-07

Data Sharing

• IPD Sharing: Will not share

Locations

GB (1)