VR Tennis Training Effects on Psychological Outcomes

NCT07356427 | Completed

• 1 other identifier: USM/JEPeM/PP/25030255
• Study Type: interventional
• Target: 180
• Locations: 1 country
• Sites: 1

Brief Summary

This randomized controlled trial examined the effects of an 8-week virtual reality (VR) tennis training intervention on psychological outcomes among Chinese university tennis players. A total of 180 participants were randomly assigned to either a VR training group (n=90) using Meta Quest 2 headsets or a traditional training control group (n=90). The VR group received immersive tennis training twice weekly for 60 minutes per session, while the control group received equivalent traditional coaching. Primary outcomes included self-efficacy, flow experience, embodied cognition, and intention to use, measured at baseline and post-intervention. Secondary analyses examined whether self-efficacy and flow experience mediated the relationship between VR training and intention to use. The study aimed to provide evidence for the effectiveness of VR technology in sports training and to elucidate the psychological mechanisms underlying VR training benefits.

Conditions

Sports Performance; Psychological Adaptation

Keywords

Virtual Reality; Tennis; Flow Experience; Embodied Cognition; Technology Acceptance; Sports Psychology; Self-Efficacy

Outcome Measures

Primary Outcomes (4)

• Self-Efficacy

  Tennis-specific self-efficacy measured using an 8-item scale adapted from Bandura (2006). Items assess confidence in performing tennis skills and managing competitive situations. Responses on 5-point Likert scale (1=Strongly Disagree to 5=Strongly Agree). Higher scores indicate greater self-efficacy. Score range: 1-5.

  Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention)

• Flow Experience

  Flow during training measured using a 10-item scale based on Csikszentmihalyi (1990). Items assess challenge-skill balance, concentration, sense of control, and intrinsic enjoyment. Responses on 5-point Likert scale. Higher scores indicate greater flow experience. Score range: 1-5.

  Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention)

• Embodied Cognition

  Embodied cognition during training measured using an 8-item scale adapted from presence questionnaires (Wilson 2002; Gonzalez-Franco 2018). Items assess sense of presence, body ownership, and sense of agency. Responses on 5-point Likert scale. Higher scores indicate greater embodied cognition. Score range: 1-5.

  Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention)

• Intention to Use

  Intention to continue using the training method measured using a 6-item scale adapted from the Technology Acceptance Model (Davis 1989). Items assess willingness to use, recommend, and prefer the training method. Responses on 5-point Likert scale. Higher scores indicate greater intention to use. Score range: 1-5.

  Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention)

Study Arms (2)

Virtual Reality Tennis Training

EXPERIMENTAL

Participants received 8 weeks of immersive VR tennis training using Meta Quest 2 headsets. Training sessions were conducted twice weekly, each lasting 60 minutes (16 sessions total). Sessions included warm-up in virtual environment (10 min), technical skill practice (25 min), tactical decision-making scenarios (20 min), and cool-down (5 min).

Behavioral: Traditional Tennis Training

Traditional Tennis Training

ACTIVE COMPARATOR

Participants received 8 weeks of traditional tennis training matched for frequency (twice weekly), duration (60 minutes/session), and content structure. Sessions included physical warm-up (10 min), technical skill drills (25 min), point play and match simulation (20 min), and cool-down (5 min).

Behavioral: Virtual Reality Tennis Training

Interventions

Virtual Reality Tennis Training BEHAVIORAL

Immersive VR tennis training using Meta Quest 2 head-mounted displays. The VR system provided real-time feedback on stroke mechanics, ball trajectory, and court positioning. Training included progressive difficulty adjustment based on individual performance. Participants practiced forehand, backhand, serve techniques, and tactical decision-making against virtual opponents.

Traditional Tennis Training

Traditional Tennis Training BEHAVIORAL

Standard tennis training delivered by qualified coaches on regular tennis courts. Training included ball feeding machines, partner practice, and coach-led instruction for technical skills, as well as competitive rallies for tactical application.

Virtual Reality Tennis Training

Eligibility Criteria

• Age: 18 Years - 26 Years
• Sex: all
• Healthy Volunteers: Yes
• Age Groups: Adult (18-64)

You may qualify if:

• Undergraduate students aged 18-26 years
• Enrolled in Physical Education or Sports Science programs at Hezhou University
• Completed at least two semesters of formal tennis instruction
• Basic tennis proficiency (able to perform forehand, backhand, and serve)
• Willing to participate in the 8-week training program
• Able to provide written informed consent

You may not qualify if:

• Visual impairments that could not be corrected and would preclude VR headset use
• History of photosensitive epilepsy or seizure disorders
• Vestibular disorders or severe motion sickness
• Current participation in competitive tennis programs at regional or higher levels
• Prior experience with VR-based sports training systems
• Any musculoskeletal injury preventing full participation in tennis training

Sponsors & Collaborators

• Universiti Sains Malaysia: lead

Study Sites (1)

Hezhou University

Hezhou, Guangxi, 542899, China

Location

Study Officials

• Rui Liu, PhD Candidate

  Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia

  PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR

• Rohayu Hami, PhD

  Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia

  STUDY DIRECTOR

Study Design

• Study Type: interventional
• Phase: not applicable
• Allocation: RANDOMIZED
• Masking: SINGLE
• Who Masked: OUTCOMES ASSESSOR
• Masking Details: Outcome assessors who administered questionnaires and collected data were blinded to participant group allocation. Due to the nature of the interventions, participants and training providers could not be blinded.
• Purpose: OTHER
• Intervention Model: PARALLEL
• Sponsor Type: OTHER
• Responsible Party: PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR
• PI Title: Doctoral

Model Details: Participants were randomly assigned to either the VR tennis training group or the traditional tennis training control group in a 1:1 ratio, with both groups receiving training concurrently over the 8-week intervention period.

Study Record Dates

• First Submitted: January 12, 2026
• First Posted: January 21, 2026
• Study Start: September 1, 2025
• Primary Completion: November 1, 2025
• Study Completion: November 1, 2025
• Last Updated: January 22, 2026

Record last verified: 2026-01

Data Sharing

• IPD Sharing: Will not share

Locations

CN (1)