Time Restricted Eating and Meal Frequency for Appetite Control

NCT07805291 | Completed

• 2 other identifiers: 28079651GF1B20B2
• Study Type: interventional
• Target: 12
• Locations: 1 country
• Sites: 1

Brief Summary

Obesity is one of the largest worldwide health problems. There are increasing rates of overweight and obesity, and in recent years, worldwide the percentage of overweight and obesity among adults now exceeds 1.9 billion and 650 million, respectively. Overweight and obesity are associated with an increase risk of type 2 diabetes (T2D), coronary heart disease, hypertension and other non-communicable diseases. There are multiple nutritional causes for obesity, including both the type and amount of food consumed. Other non-nutritional factors can be just as important to influence body mass, such as the number of meals eaten, which is termed meal frequency. The changing food environment influences calorie consumption, such as increased food variety, increased availability and food processing, a nocturnal lifestyle that disrupts the circadian clock, meal timing and frequency, irregular meal patterns, and prolonged duration of eating during the day. This results in increased food and beverage consumption throughout the day. Meal frequency is commonly defined as, 'the number of foods or drinks a person consumes in one day. Meals and snacks are less clearly defined. Meal is defined as any food providing≥ 50 kcal and separated by more than one hour. In most cultures, the name meal is given to the three eating episodes in a day: breakfast, lunch, and dinner; or breakfast, brunch, lunch, supper, and dinner. In this study, the investigators will use the definition of "breakfast, brunch, lunch, supper, and dinner", but it will be on restricted time: 10 hours eating and 14 hours fasting (from 7:00 to 17:00) and one type of diet (high protein diet). Other researchers have defined meals by the time of the day, such as early and late breakfast, lunch and dinner intake. These definitions differ according to culture. Other researchers have defined meals based on timing, such as (6:00 am -10:00 am), (12:00 pm - 3:00 pm), and (6:00 pm - 9:00 pm). Some studies have highlighted that there are factors that affect the number of meals which a person consumes. Eating a high amount of energy during breakfast helps to feel full for a longer period. Time of eating and duration of eating or not eating. The type of macronutrient intake; for example, high protein (HP) intake reduces ad libitum energy intake. The number of meals eaten per day; some studies have confirmed that consuming small frequent meals is better for healthy weight and appetite control in the general population, compared to consuming one huge meal a day. This can assist control of appetite and plasma glucose concentrations. On the other hand, recent research has indicated that consuming (≥6 meals/day) increases disease risk significantly more than consuming (1-2 meals/day). Some researchers believe that there is no relationship between meal frequency and body weight.

Conditions

Obesity; Meal Frequency; Appetite; Body Composition; Glycaemic Response; Time-restricted Eating

Keywords

Obesity; Meal Frequency; Appetite; Body Composition; Glycaemic Response; Time-restricted Eating

Outcome Measures

Primary Outcomes (1)

• The participant's appetite response on the test day (day 3rd, 7th, 17th, and 21st)

  Measured with visual analogue scales (VAS).

  On test days recorded at timepoints 0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150 and 180 minutes. On all study days recorded hourly during waking hours. The straight line is 100 mm long, left side indicates low symptoms.

Secondary Outcomes (14)

• Plasma blood glucose on the test day (day 3rd, 7th, 17th, and 21st)

  The blood samples will be collected by multiple venepuncture before breakfast (T0 minutes) and post prandial (T180 minutes).

• Plasma blood insulin on the test day (day 3rd, 7th, 17th, and 21st)

  The blood samples will be collected by multiple venepuncture before breakfast (T0 minutes) and post prandial (T180 minutes).

• Continuous glucose monitoring System (CGMS)

  Day 1-7 and day 15-21 which correspond to weight loss diet periods.

• Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR) on test day (day 3rd, 7th, 17th, and 21st)

  Resting metabolic rate (RMR, 30 minutes before eating breakfast) on screening visit and Test Day (3, 7, 17, and 21).

• Thermic Effect of Food (TEF ) on test day (day 3rd, 7th, 17th, and 21st)

  Thermic effect of food (TEF post prandial 180 minutes, measured 10 minutes, every 30 minutes by ventilated hood; at 30, 60, 90, 10, 150, and 180 minutes) on Test Day 3, 7, 17, and 21.

Study Arms (2)

weight loss diet 1 (2MPD)

EXPERIMENTAL

Intervention weight loss diet 1 (2MPD, 2 meals/day) for 4 days

Other: MT1; Other: MT2

weight loss diet2 (5MPD)

EXPERIMENTAL

Intervention weight loss diet 2 (5MPD, 5 meals/day) for 4 days

Other: MT1; Other: MT2

Interventions

MT1 OTHER

\- On days 1-2 (MT1) 15:30:55% of energy from protein, fat and carbohydrate respectively).

weight loss diet 1 (2MPD); weight loss diet2 (5MPD)

MT2 OTHER

\- On days 16-17 (MT2) 15:30:55% of energy from protein, fat and carbohydrate respectively).

weight loss diet 1 (2MPD); weight loss diet2 (5MPD)

Eligibility Criteria

• Age: 18 Years - 65 Years
• Sex: all
• Healthy Volunteers: Yes
• Age Groups: Adult (18-64), Older Adult (65+)

You may qualify if:

• Adults (males and females), age 18-65 years
• Who are healthy but overweight or obese (BMI 25+ Kg/m2)
• With no history of kidney disease or bariatric surgery
• Not following any specific type of medical or religious diet
• Not taking any drugs that affect the rate of physical activity or metabolic circulating
• Not pregnant or breastfeeding.
• With a fluent understanding of the English language

You may not qualify if:

• Anyone with a BMI (in kg/m2) under 25
• Anyone under 18 years or above 65 years.
• Anyone taking the statins (current), aspirin or anti-coagulants (current).
• Anyone with chronic inflammatory disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis or inflammatory bowel disease
• Anyone with cardiovascular disease
• Anyone with diabetes
• Anyone who is are planning to be pregnant, are pregnant or breastfeeding
• Anyone with food allergy, self-reported food sensitivity or intolerance
• Anyone with coeliac disease or gluten intolerance
• Anyone with a gastrointestinal disorder, kidney disease, liver disease or gout
• Anyone taking medication which may affect appetite or circadian rhythm.
• Anyone with an eating disorder
• Anyone suffering from unregulated thyroid disease.
• Anyone using Beta Blockers which can affect the rate of physical activity.
• Anyone using some anti-depressants such as mirtazapine can affect the appetite.

Sponsors & Collaborators

• University of Aberdeen: lead

Study Sites (1)

University of Aberdeen, The Rowett Institute, Foresterhill

Aberdeen, Aberdeen City, AB25 2ZD, United Kingdom

Location

Related Publications (30)

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• Ruddick-Collins LC, Flanagan A, Johnston JD, Morgan PJ, Johnstone AM. Circadian Rhythms in Resting Metabolic Rate Account for Apparent Daily Rhythms in the Thermic Effect of Food. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2022 Jan 18;107(2):e708-e715. doi: 10.1210/clinem/dgab654.

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• Smeets AJ, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. Acute effects on metabolism and appetite profile of one meal difference in the lower range of meal frequency. Br J Nutr. 2008 Jun;99(6):1316-21. doi: 10.1017/S0007114507877646. Epub 2007 Dec 6.

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• Alhussain MH, Macdonald IA, Taylor MA. Impact of isoenergetic intake of irregular meal patterns on thermogenesis, glucose metabolism, and appetite: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2022 Jan 11;115(1):284-297. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/nqab323.

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• Speechly DP, Buffenstein R. Greater appetite control associated with an increased frequency of eating in lean males. Appetite. 1999 Dec;33(3):285-97. doi: 10.1006/appe.1999.0265.

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• Speechly DP, Rogers GG, Buffenstein R. Acute appetite reduction associated with an increased frequency of eating in obese males. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1999 Nov;23(11):1151-9. doi: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801046.

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• Correia JM, Santos I, Pezarat-Correia P, Minderico C, Mendonca GV. Effects of Intermittent Fasting on Specific Exercise Performance Outcomes: A Systematic Review Including Meta-Analysis. Nutrients. 2020 May 12;12(5):1390. doi: 10.3390/nu12051390.

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• Jones R, Pabla P, Mallinson J, Nixon A, Taylor T, Bennett A, Tsintzas K. Two weeks of early time-restricted feeding (eTRF) improves skeletal muscle insulin and anabolic sensitivity in healthy men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2020 Oct 1;112(4):1015-1028. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/nqaa192.

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• Paoli A, Tinsley G, Bianco A, Moro T. The Influence of Meal Frequency and Timing on Health in Humans: The Role of Fasting. Nutrients. 2019 Mar 28;11(4):719. doi: 10.3390/nu11040719.

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• Leech RM, Worsley A, Timperio A, McNaughton SA. Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality. Nutr Res Rev. 2015 Jun;28(1):1-21. doi: 10.1017/S0954422414000262. Epub 2015 Mar 19.

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• Garaulet M, Gomez-Abellan P, Alburquerque-Bejar JJ, Lee YC, Ordovas JM, Scheer FA. Timing of food intake predicts weight loss effectiveness. Int J Obes (Lond). 2013 Apr;37(4):604-11. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2012.229. Epub 2013 Jan 29.

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• Murakami K, Livingstone MB. Associations between Meal and Snack Frequency and Diet Quality in US Adults: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2012. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2016 Jul;116(7):1101-13. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2015.12.012. Epub 2016 Feb 2.

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• Sjöholm, M., 2017. Does eating frequency correlate with overweight and obesity among Swedish men and women?

  BACKGROUND

• Sharma, Sarit, Sharma, Sumita, 2020. Obesity epidemic: Striking the younger age group. Med. J. Dr Patil Vidyapeeth 13, 333. https://doi.org/10.4103/mjdrdypu.mjdrdypu_307_19

  BACKGROUND

• Windisch, L., Andrade, J., 2017. The Effects a Traditional Meal Pattern vs. Small Frequent Meals has on Body Composition in Overweight and Obese Adults: A Systematic Review 1, 8.

  BACKGROUND

MeSH Terms

Conditions

Obesity; Intermittent Fasting

Condition Hierarchy (Ancestors)

Overweight; Overnutrition; Nutrition Disorders; Nutritional and Metabolic Diseases; Body Weight; Signs and Symptoms; Pathological Conditions, Signs and Symptoms; Fasting; Feeding Behavior; Behavior

Study Design

• Study Type: interventional
• Phase: not applicable
• Allocation: RANDOMIZED
• Masking: SINGLE
• Who Masked: PARTICIPANT
• Purpose: HEALTH SERVICES RESEARCH
• Intervention Model: CROSSOVER
• Sponsor Type: OTHER
• Responsible Party: SPONSOR

Model Details: Within subject design

Study Record Dates

• First Submitted: May 20, 2026
• First Posted: September 4, 2026
• Study Start: September 12, 2024
• Primary Completion: April 14, 2025
• Study Completion: August 31, 2025
• Last Updated: September 4, 2026

Record last verified: 2025-02

Locations

GB (1)