Does Daily Physical Education Improve Motor Skill Development and Health-Related Physical Fitness in Preschool Children?

NCT07709949 | Completed

• 1 other identifier: 142-451-2800/2018-01/01/2019
• Study Type: interventional
• Target: 323
• Locations: 1 country
• Sites: 1

Brief Summary

Background: During childhood, physical activity (PA) plays a fundamental role in motor development, as movement experiences during this critical period support the acquisition of both fine and gross motor skills (GMS) and foster an active lifestyle. This developmental phase, marked by regular engagement in PA and the progressive attainment of motor competence, has been consistently linked to a range of health benefits. Accordingly, early motor intervention programs have received considerable research attention for their demonstrated positive impact on children's motor skill development. Beyond such general approaches, more targeted strategies have also been explored, including programs aimed at increasing the amount of time devoted to PA within school settings. Prior studies have shown that incorporating structured exercise interventions-based on enjoyable, game-like activities-into the curriculum can significantly enhance children's fundamental motor skills. Method and Materials: A total of 258 preschool children (128 boys, 130 girls) were assigned to either a gender-balanced experimental group participating in an innovative, daily physical education program (EG; n=125) or a control group following the standard institutional curriculum (CG; n=133). The average age of participants was 6.07±0.42 years (EG: 6.05±0.43; CG: 6.10±0.40). In EG, participants had organized physical activity 5 days per week (3 days led by physical education specialists, 2 days by preschool teachers), with each session lasting approximately 30-40 minutes. The CG continued their usual routine with structured physical activity two times per week (1 day led by a specialist, 1 day by a teacher). The program was implemented over a period of six months. The Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2) and Body Coordination Test for Children (KTK) were used to assess GMS, while the PREFIT battery was used to assess health-related physical fitness. Aim: Тhe study aimed to empirically determine the effects of an experimental physical education program in preschool institutions on the development of motor skills and the improvement of health-related physical fitness in preschool-aged children.

Conditions

Motor Activity; Motor Coordination; Child Development; Excercise; Physical Education and Training/Methods

Keywords

Physical Education; Kindergarten; Coordination; Motor skills; Preschool Children; TGMD-2; KTK; PREFIT; Sport

Outcome Measures

Primary Outcomes (24)

• Test of gross motor development (tgmd-2): Locomotor Skills - Run

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: A minimum of 50 feet of clear space and masking tape, chalk, or other marking device. DIRECTIONS: Mark off two lines 50 feet apart. Instruct student to "run fast" from one line to the other. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: Brief period where both feet are off the ground! Arms in opposition to legs, elbows bent. Foot placement near or on line (not flat footed) Non-support leg bent approximately 90 degrees (close to buttocks). Expert scoring - the specific steps in scoring all items are listed below: 1. Require the subject to perform three trials. 2. Observe the student performing the skill and concentrate on the performance criteria. 3. Where the student performs a behavioural component two out of three trials correctly, mark a "1" in the appropriate box in the correct assessment column. Where the student does not perform a behavioural component two out of three trials correctly, mark "0."

  Nine months

• Test of gross motor development (tgmd-2): Locomotor skills - Gallop

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: A minimum of 30 feet of clear space. DIRECTIONS: Mark off two lines 30 feet apart. Tell student to gallop from one line to the other three times. Tell student to gallop leading with one foot and then the other. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: A step forward with the lead foot followed by a step with the trailing foot to a position adjacent to or behind the led foot. Brief period where both feet are off the ground. Arms bent and lifted to waist level. Able to lead with right and left foot. Expert scoring - the specific steps in scoring all items are listed below: 1. Require the subject to perform three trials. 2. Observe the student performing the skill and concentrate on the performance criteria. 3. Where the student performs a behavioural component two out of three trials correctly, mark a "1" in the appropriate box in the correct assessment column. Where the student does not perform a behavioural component two out of three trials correctly, mark "0."

  Nine months

• Test of gross motor development (tgmd-2): Locomotor skills - Hop

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: A minimum of 15 feet of clear space. DIRECTIONS: Ask the student to hop three times, first on one foot and then on the other. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: Foot of non-support leg is bent and carried in back of the body. Non-support leg swings in pendular fashion to produce force. Arms bent at elbows and swing forward on take-off. Able to hop on the right and left foot. Expert scoring - the specific steps in scoring all items are listed below: 1. Require the subject to perform three trials. 2. Observe the student performing the skill and concentrate on the performance criteria. 3. Where the student performs a behavioural component two out of three trials correctly, mark a "1" in the appropriate box in the correct assessment column. Where the student does not perform a behavioural component two out of three trials correctly, mark "0."

  Nine months

• Test of gross motor development (tgmd-2): Locomotor skills - Leap

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: A minimum of 30 feet of clear space. DIRECTIONS: Ask the student to leap. Tell the student to take large steps by leaping from one foot to the other. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: Take off on one foot and land on the opposite foot. A period where both feet are off the ground (longer than running). Forward reach with arm opposite the lead foot. Expert scoring - the specific steps in scoring all items are listed below: 1. Require the subject to perform three trials. 2. Observe the student performing the skill and concentrate on the performance criteria. 3. Where the student performs a behavioural component two out of three trials correctly, mark a "1" in the appropriate box in the correct assessment column. Where the student does not perform a behavioural component two out of three trials correctly, mark "0."

  Nine months

• Test of gross motor development (tgmd-2): Locomotor skills - Horizontal jump

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: A minimum of 10 feet of clear space and masking tape or another marking device. • DIRECTIONS: Mark off a starting line on the floor, mat, or carpet. Have the student start behind the line. Instruct the student to "jump far." PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: 1. Preparatory movement includes flexion of both knees with arms extended behind the body. 2. Arms extend forcefully forward and upward, reaching full extension above the head. 3. Take off and land on both feet simultaneously. 4. Arms are brought downward during landing. EXPERT SCORING: 1. Require three trials. 2. Observe and focus on performance criteria. 3. Score "1" for correct performance on two out of three trials, otherwise score "0."

  Nine months

• Test of gross motor development (tgmd-2): Locomotor skills - skip

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: A minimum of 30 feet of clear space and masking tape, or other marking device. DIRECTIONS: Mark off two lines 30 feet apart. Tell the student to skip from one line to the other three times. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: A rhythmical repetition of the step-hop on alternate feet. Foot of non-support leg carried near surface during hop phase. Arms alternately moving in opposition to legs at about waist level. Expert scoring - the specific steps in scoring all items are listed below: 1. Require the subject to perform three trials. 2. Observe the student performing the skill and concentrate on the performance criteria. 3. Where the student performs a behavioural component two out of three trials correctly, mark a "1" in the appropriate box in the correct assessment column. Where the student does not perform a behavioural component two out of three trials correctly, mark "0."

  Nine months

• Test of gross motor development (tgmd-2): Locomotor skills - slide

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: A minimum of 30 feet of clear space and masking tape or another marking device. DIRECTIONS: Mark off two lines 30 feet apart. Instruct the student to slide from one line to the other three times, facing the same direction. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: 1. Body turned sideways to the desired direction of travel. 2. A step sideways followed by a slide of the trailing foot next to the lead foot. 3. A short period where both feet are off the floor. 4. Able to slide to the right and left sides. EXPERT SCORING: 1. Require three trials. 2. Observe and focus on performance criteria. 3. Score "1" for correct performance on two out of three trials, otherwise score "0."

  Nine months

• Test of gross motor development (tgmd-2): Object control skill- two-hand strike

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: A 4-6-inch light-weight ball and plastic bat. DIRECTIONS: Toss the ball softly to the student at about waist level. Tell the student to hit the ball "hard." Count only hose tosses that are between the student's waist and shoulders. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: Dominant hand grips bat above nondominant hand. Nondominant side of body faces the tossed (feet parallel). Hip and spine rotation. Weight is transferred by stepping with front foot. Expert scoring - the specific steps in scoring all items are listed below: 1. Require the subject to perform three trials. 2. Observe the student performing the skill and concentrate on the performance criteria. 3. Where the student performs a behavioural component two out of three trials correctly, mark a "1" in the appropriate box in the correct assessment column. Where the student does not perform a behavioural component two out of three trials correctly, mark "0."

  Nine months

• Test of gross motor development (tgmd-2): Object control skill- stationary bounce

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: An 8-10-inch playground ball and a flat hard surface. DIRECTIONS: Tell the student to bounce the ball three times using one hand. Make sure the ball is not underinflated. Repeat three separate trials. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: Contact ball with one hand at about hip height. Pushes ball with fingers (not a slap). Ball contacts floor in front of (or to the outside of) foot on the side of the hand being used. Expert scoring - the specific steps in scoring all items are listed below: 1. Require the subject to perform three trials. 2. Observe the student performing the skill and concentrate on the performance criteria. 3. Where the student performs a behavioural component two out of three trials correctly, mark a "1" in the appropriate box in the correct assessment column. Where the student does not perform a behavioural component two out of three trials correctly, mark "0."

  Nine months

• Test of gross motor development (tgmd-2): Object control skill- catch

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: A 6-8-inch sponge ball, 15 feet of clear space, masking tape or other marking device. DIRECTIONS: Mark off two lines 15 feet apart. The student stands on one line, and the ball is tossed from the other. Toss the ball underhand directly to the student with a slight arc, saying "catch it with your hands." Only count tosses between the student's shoulders and waist. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: 1. Preparation phase with elbows flexed and hands in front of the body. 2. Arms extend in preparation for ball contact. 3. Ball caught and controlled by hands only. 4. Elbows bend to absorb force. EXPERT SCORING: 1. Require three trials. 2. Observe and focus on performance criteria. 3. Score "1" for correct performance on two out of three trials, otherwise score "0."

  Nine months

• Test of gross motor development (tgmd-2): Object control skill- kick

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: An 8-10-inch plastic or slightly deflated playground ball, 30 feet of clear space, masking tape or other marking device. DIRECTIONS: Mark off two lines-one 30 feet away from a wall and another 20 feet from the wall. Place the ball on the line nearest the wall and have the student stand on the other line. Instruct the student to kick the ball "hard" toward the wall. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: Rapid continuous approach to the ball. Trunk inclined backward during ball contact. Forward swing of the arm opposite kicking leg. Follow-through by hopping on non-kicking foot. EXPERT SCORING: Require three trials. Observe and focus on performance criteria. Score "1" for correct performance on two out of three trials, otherwise score "0."

  Nine months

• Test of gross motor development (tgmd-2): Object control skill- overhand throw

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: A tennis ball, a wall, and 25 feet of clear space. DIRECTIONS: Tell the student to throw the ball "hard" at the wall. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: A downward arc of the throwing arm initiates the windup. Rotation of hip and shoulder to a point where the nondominant side faces an imaginary target. Weight is transferred by stepping with the foot opposite the throwing hand. Follow-through beyond ball release diagonally cross body toward side opposite throwing arm. Expert scoring - the specific steps in scoring all items are listed below: 1. Require the subject to perform three trials. 2. Observe the student performing the skill and concentrate on the performance criteria. 3. Where the student performs a behavioural component two out of three trials correctly, mark a "1" in the appropriate box in the correct assessment column. Where the student does not perform a behavioural component two out of three trials correctly, mark "0."

  Nine months

• Test of gross motor development (tgmd-2): Object control skill- underhand roll

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: A tennis ball or a softball; two cones; tape; and 25 feet of clean space. DIRECTIONS: Place two cones 4 feet apart against a wall. Instruct the child to roll the ball between the cones with force. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: Preferred hand swing, reaching behind the trunk while chest faces cones. Strides forward with foot opposite the preferred hand toward the cones. Bends knees to lower body. Releases ball close to the floor so ball does not bounce more than 4 inches high. Expert scoring - the specific steps in scoring all items are listed below: 1. Require the subject to perform three trials. 2. Observe the student performing the skill and concentrate on the performance criteria. 3. Where the student performs a behavioural component two out of three trials correctly, mark a "1" in the appropriate box in the correct assessment column. Where the student does not perform a behavioural component two out of three trials correctly, mark "0."

  Nine months

• Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK): Walking Backward (WB)

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: Three balance beams, 3 m long, widths 6 cm, 4.5 cm, and 3 cm, placed parallel on a flat surface, 1 m apart. DIRECTIONS: As a practice trial, the child walks forward on the 6 cm beam. The child then walks backward on the same beam for three trials, then repeats on the 4.5 cm and 3 cm beams. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: The child must maintain balance while walking backward, completing up to 8 steps per trial. TERMINATION CRITERIA: Each trial ends when the child loses balance and touches the ground. Expert scoring: Require three trials on each of the three beams (9 trials total). Record the number of successful steps (max 8) for each trial. Total score = sum of all 9 trials (maximum possible score: 72).

  Nine months

• Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK): Hopping for Height (HH)

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: Three mats (2x1 m) in a row, 12 foam platforms (60x20x5 cm) at the second-third mat junction, forming obstacles 0-60 cm high. DIRECTIONS: From a one-legged run-up, the child hops twice on one leg, clears the platform(s), and hops twice more on the same leg after landing. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: The child must land on the take-off leg and continue hopping on it for two more hops after clearance. TERMINATION CRITERIA: Ends after three errors (knocking the platform, or failing to continue on the take-off leg). Expert scoring: Attempt each obstacle height with both legs. Award 3 points (1st attempt), 2 points (2nd), 1 point (3rd). Total score = sum for both legs (maximum: 78, 39 per leg).

  Nine months

• Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK): Jumping Sideways (JS)

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: A wooden slat (60 cm x 4 cm x 2 cm) and a stopwatch. DIRECTIONS: As a practice trial, the child performs 5 two-footed sideways jumps over the slat. The child then jumps sideways over the slat with both feet together as many times as possible within 15 seconds. The test is performed twice. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: Each successful two-footed jump over the slat is counted. TERMINATION CRITERIA: The trial ends when the 15-second period elapses. Expert scoring - the specific steps in scoring all items are listed below: Require the subject to perform two trials of 15 seconds each. The examiner counts and records the number of successful jumps for each trial. The total score is the sum of successful jumps from both trials.

  Nine months

• Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK): Moving Sideways (MS)

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: Two wooden platforms (25 cm x 25 cm x 5.7 cm) and a stopwatch. DIRECTIONS: The child stands on one platform, moves the second platform to the side in the intended direction, steps onto it, and repeats the sequence as many times as possible within 20 seconds. The test is performed twice. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: Each complete platform transfer and step is counted. TERMINATION CRITERIA: The trial ends when the 20-second period elapses. Expert scoring - the specific steps in scoring all items are listed below: Require the subject to perform two trials of 20 seconds each. The examiner counts and records the number of platform transfers for each trial. The total score is the sum of transfers from both trials.

  Nine months

• PREFIT: Body Height and Body Mass (BMI)

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: Digital scale and stadiometer. DIRECTIONS: For body mass, the child stands barefoot at the center of the scale, weight evenly distributed, arms at the sides. For body height, the child stands barefoot on the stadiometer, heels touching the vertical board, with the head positioned in the Frankfurt horizontal plane. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: The child must remain still, without shoe wear or heavy clothing, during measurement. Expert scoring - the specific steps in scoring all items are listed below: Require the subject to perform two trials for both height and weight. Record body mass to the nearest 100 g (e.g., 28.0 kg) and body height to the nearest millimeter (e.g., 100.3 cm). Calculate BMI using the formula: weight (kg) / height² (m²).

  Nine months

• PREFIT: Waist Circumference

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: A non-elastic (tailor's) measuring tape. DIRECTIONS: The child stands upright, abdomen relaxed, arms at the sides, feet together. The examiner places the tape horizontally at the level of the navel, at the end of a normal exhalation. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: The tape must not compress the skin and must not be placed over clothing. Expert scoring - the specific steps in scoring all items are listed below: Require the subject to perform two non-consecutive trials. Record both results to the nearest 0.1 cm (e.g., 60.7 cm).

  Nine months

• PREFIT: Standing Long Jump

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: A non-slip surface marked with a measuring track in centimetres, a starting line, and a measuring tape. DIRECTIONS: The child stands behind the line, feet shoulder-width apart, bends the knees, swings the arms, and jumps forward as far as possible, landing on both feet. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: The child must attempt to land with both feet simultaneously and maintain an upright position. Expert scoring - the specific steps in scoring all items are listed below: Require the subject to perform three trials. Measure the distance from the take-off line to the nearest point of contact (heels). Record the best of the three trials, in centimetres (e.g., 106 cm).

  Nine months

• PREFIT: 4x10m Running Test

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: A clean, non-slip surface, stopwatch, four cones, and adhesive tape marking two parallel lines 10 m apart. DIRECTIONS: On the starting signal, the child runs as fast as possible to the opposite line, touches the examiner's hand, and returns, repeating the sequence for a total of four 10 m lengths. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: Both feet must cross each line on every pass; the child must run in a straight line without slipping. Expert scoring - the specific steps in scoring all items are listed below: Require the subject to perform two trials. Record the best time, in seconds, rounded to one decimal place.

  Nine months

• PREFIT: Shuttle Run Test

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: A gymnasium or open space of at least 20 m, four cones, measuring tape, and an audio player with the recorded test protocol. DIRECTIONS: The child runs between two lines 20 m apart, pacing with an audio signal that starts at 6.5 km/h and increases by 0.5 km/h per minute (one minute per level). PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: The child must reach the line in time with the signal; the test ends when the child fails to reach the line in time with the signal on two consecutive occasions, or stops due to fatigue. Expert scoring - the specific steps in scoring all items are listed below: 1. Require the subject to perform a single trial. 2. Record the last completed level and number of laps (e.g., five laps corresponds to level one).

  Nine months

• Additional test: Sit & Reach (Flexibility)

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: A sit-and-reach box. DIRECTIONS: The child sits on the floor with legs extended and together, arms extended forward, one palm placed over the back of the other hand, and reaches forward as far as possible with the middle fingers, without bouncing. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: The legs must remain fully extended throughout the task. Expert scoring - the specific steps in scoring all items are listed below: 1. Require the subject to perform three trials. 2. Record the reach distance, in centimeters.

  Nine months

• Additional test: 30-Second Sit-Ups (Trunk Muscular Endurance)

  EQUIPMENT/CONDITIONS: A stopwatch and a mat. DIRECTIONS: The child lies supine on the mat, knees bent at 90°, feet hip-width apart, arms crossed over the chest with hands on opposite shoulders, feet held by the examiner; on the starting signal, the child performs as many sit-ups as possible in 30 seconds (elbows touching the thighs, then returning to the supine position). PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: Each repetition must be correctly executed (elbows touch thighs, back returns to the mat). Expert scoring - the specific steps in scoring all items are listed below: 1. Require the subject to perform a single 30-second trial. 2. Record the total number of correctly performed sit-ups.

  Nine months

Secondary Outcomes (6)

• Sex

  Nine months

• Date of birth

  Nine months

• Weight

  Nine months

• Height

  Nine months

• Body Mass Index (BMI)

  Nine months

Study Arms (2)

Experimental (EG), participating in the six-month innovative physical education program

EXPERIMENTAL

The EG participated in a six-month innovative physical education program, conducted daily (five days per week) during morning hours as part of the institution's directed activities, with sessions led by physical education specialists three days per week and by preschool teachers on the remaining two days. The program incorporated elements of ball sports (basketball, football, handball), athletics, gymnastics (developmental, corrective, rhythmic), children's yoga, children's aerobics, dance (folk and standard), and demonstrations of martial arts, with session duration adapted to age standards for directed activities (approximately 30-40 minutes for the preparatory preschool group).

Behavioral: Six-month daily PE program (5x/week), led by PE specialists and teachers, combining ball sports, gymnastics, athletics, yoga, aerobics, dance, and martial arts for preschoolers.

Control (CG)

NO INTERVENTION

Control group of participants CG followed the institution's standard curriculum, engaging in structured physical activity two times per week (one day led by a specialist, one day by a teacher), in accordance with the general framework prescribed by the institution's annual work plan.

Interventions

Six-month daily PE program (5x/week), led by PE specialists and teachers, combining ball sports, gymnastics, athletics, yoga, aerobics, dance, and martial arts for preschoolers. BEHAVIORAL

The EG participated in a six-month innovative physical education program, conducted daily (five days per week) during morning hours as part of the institution's directed activities, with sessions led by physical education specialists three days per week and by preschool teachers on the remaining two days. The program incorporated elements of ball sports (basketball, football, handball), athletics, gymnastics (developmental, corrective, rhythmic), children's yoga, children's aerobics, dance (folk and standard), and demonstrations of martial arts, with session duration adapted to age standards for directed activities (approximately 30-40 minutes for the preparatory preschool group).

Also known as: Physical Activity

Experimental (EG), participating in the six-month innovative physical education program

Eligibility Criteria

• Age: 4 Years - 7 Years
• Sex: all
• Healthy Volunteers: Yes
• Age Groups: Child (0-17)

You may qualify if:

• No injuries within the past six months
• No other medical conditions, including COVID-19
• No scheduled physical activity in the previous three months
• Considered valid for the experimental programs if participants completed at least 80% of all training sessions.
• Written parental/guardian consent for participation

You may not qualify if:

• History of neurological or musculoskeletal disorders
• Clinical conditions that could affect balance, such as motor disorders, diabetes, heart disease, stroke, vision problems, thyroid issues, or issues with nerves or blood vessels.

Sponsors & Collaborators

• University of Novi Sad: lead

Study Sites (1)

Faculty of sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad

Novi Sad, Vojvodina, 21000, Serbia

Location

MeSH Terms

Conditions

Motor Activity

Interventions

Gymnastics; Yoga; Exercise

Condition Hierarchy (Ancestors)

Behavior

Intervention Hierarchy (Ancestors)

Motor Activity; Movement; Musculoskeletal Physiological Phenomena; Musculoskeletal and Neural Physiological Phenomena; Mind-Body Therapies; Complementary Therapies; Therapeutics; Spiritual Therapies; Exercise Movement Techniques; Physical Therapy Modalities

Study Officials

• Dragan Marinkovic

  University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education

  STUDY DIRECTOR

Study Design

• Study Type: interventional
• Phase: not applicable
• Allocation: RANDOMIZED
• Masking: NONE
• Purpose: TREATMENT
• Intervention Model: PARALLEL
• Sponsor Type: OTHER
• Responsible Party: PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR
• PI Title: Lead Investigator

Study Record Dates

• First Submitted: July 7, 2026
• First Posted: July 17, 2026
• Study Start: September 10, 2023
• Primary Completion: September 15, 2023
• Study Completion: May 15, 2024
• Last Updated: July 17, 2026

Record last verified: 2026-07

Data Sharing

• IPD Sharing: Will not share

Locations

SE (1)